Com Chapters 1-4

1.1 Characteristics of life

Life is organized

There are many different characteristics of life. We can categorize them making them less confusing. Starting with life is organized; this consists from atoms through the biosphere. Please view picture 1. This will explain each level of life.

Acquiring materials and energy

Humans and animals cannot function with out energy. We get our energy from the food that we eat that contains nutrients. The nutrients are then broken down to help store energy with in our bodies.

Reproducing

The human race reproduces to ensure that we will be around for centuries to come. During the DNA reproduction it sends information into a cell and to it metabolism. Then DNA makes exact copies of it self, Genes that are later passed onto the offspring.

Growing and Developing

We are growing from the moment that we were conceived until death has taken its place. In uterus we are growing rapidly making the different organs, tissues, and so on. We will never stop growing physically or mentally.

Homeostasis

Being homeostatic we maintain our body temperature. We are also using the digestive system to take in nutrients while other organs and areas of the body are taking the nutrients and dispensing them where needed. Thus giving is energy.

Responding to stimuli

As humans we can respond to different stimulus. Some humans are moved by the sight of food others by the perfect pair of shoes in the window. When you touch a hot stove you will have something go off in your body saying that it is hot and that it needs to be removed, this will happen simultaneously.

Life has an evolutionary history

-Evolution is the process by which a species changes through time.
Each generation changes a little to help suit them for the environmental changes and the physical demands.

1.2 Humans are related to other animals

All living things are classified under 3 domain groups.
1. Domain Eurkarya
a. Kingdom animalia
b. Kingdom plants
c. Kingdom fungi
d. Kingdom protista
2. Domain archaea
3. Bacteria

Humans are classified as vertebrates in kingdom animalia. We are distinguished by our highly developed brain, completely upright position, creative language, and have the ability to use a large variety of tools.

Humans have a cultural heritage

This engulfs us with products that are handed down from generation to generation. When we are born it is like a blank slate and our cultural surrounding are what mold us to be who we are.

Humans are members of the biosphere

All living things are categorized as part of the biosphere. This includes the soil to the atmosphere. We depend on the environment to shelter, feed, warm, and give us oxygen.

Humans threaten the biosphere

We cut the forest down to nothing and we have cars that are eating away at the atmosphere slowing causing global warming. When we cut down the forests we are also taking down animal’s shelters and food supply thus killing most species to extinction.

1.3 Science as a process

Importance of scientific theories

The ultimate gold of science is to understand the natural world in terms of scientific theories. Scientific theories tell us how life is organized.

The scientific method has steps

1. Observation- new observations are made and previous data are studied
2. Hypothesis- input from various sources is used to formulate a testable statement.
3. Experiment/ observations- the hypothesis is tested by experiment or further observations
4. conclusion- the results are analyzed and the hypothesis is supported or rejected
5. Scientific theory- many experiments and observations support a theory.

How the cause of ulcers was discovered

First there was bacteria suspected and was able to isolate the Heliobacter Phylori from the ulcer patients. Then tried to infect a guinea pig and rats. This didn’t work then he decided that he would be the test dummy and drank a whole vial of the bacteria and come to find out that is what it was.

How to conduct a control study

There needs to be three groups of people. One would be given the placebo, one the first antibiotic, and the third group the second antibiotic. After a certain amount of time each of the groups are pulled in to the results. When this taken place is might be a double blind procedure. This means that the doctors checking them out wont know who got what only making it fair to not make there own statements.

Scientific journals versus other sources of information

Scientific journals are written by scientist and are not in lemons terms making them difficult to read and understand. However they are the most reliable for accurate information on a specific study. When you are getting through a magazine or other source they may alter the information a little and not give the full story.

1.4 making sense of the scientific study

There are many different aspects that you should look for when researching a study. One is methodology this explains how the study was done. The standard error is the second thing you should look for because it shows how uncertain a particular value is.

1.5 Science and social responsibility

Science technology has always believe that it can offer ways to improve and advance the civilization by being able to improve paving, crops, and curing diseases.

Science and technology, benefits versus risks

GM crops were built to help diabetic patients have insulin but even though there are benefits there are risks. Some of these risks may include the toxin that is being grown by the cotton fields is killing the pests but the other animals that eat them are also being killed and it can affect the whole food chain.

Everyone is responsible

Everyone needs to be responsible for the use of technology because it affects everyone.

2 Chapter 2 chemistry of life

2.1 From atoms to molecules

Elements

Elements are basic building blocks of matter. (Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass). An element is classified by the number of atoms, protons, chemical reaction, and electrons. The human body has only 4 of the elements: Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen. See the complete table below!

Atoms

An atom is the smallest unit of an element. With in the atom there are smaller sub atomic elements such as protons, neutron and electrons. The protons carry a positive charge and the electrons have a negative charge.

Isotopes

Isotopes of the same type of atom differ in the number of neutrons. When an atom is breaking down it gives of rays of energy this turns it into a radioisotope. There are two different levels of radiation that is given off. The lower level of radiation is considered a tracer. A tracer is used to image a body organ. The high levels of radiation can kill cells and damage DNA this can have long lasting affects.

Molecules and compounds

A molecule can only contain atoms of the same kind. When they are different is then put into another category: compound.

· Ionic bonding the outer shell contains 8 electrons. During the ionic reaction the atom will gain or lose electrons to stabilize itself. 8 electrons is the ideal number.
· Covalent bonding this means that two or more atoms can share an outer shells.

2.2 water and living things

Water makes up about 60-70% of the total body weight. The oxygen molecule is negative and the two hydrogen molecules attached to it are positive.

Hydrogen bonds

It is considered a hydrogen bond when the hydrogen molecule is positive attached to a negative atom.

Properties of water

1. Liquid
2. vaporization
3. frozen
4. cohesive
5. polar charged
Each of these is taken in place with water. Ions that interact with water are hydrophilic and the ones that don’t are hydrophobic.

Acids and bases

· Acidic solutions are High H+ this means that they release hydrogen ions when in water.
· Basic solutions are give of OH- hydroxide ions when put in water.
· The PH scale represents how acidic something is or if it’s a base. This ranges from 0-14.
· Buffers are what keeps the PH level, level.

2.3 Molecules of life

There are four categories of organic molecules these include carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

2.4 carbohydrates

Carbs are simple sugars and are used for energy.

2.5 Lipids

Lipids are for long term energy storage. Mammals and other vertebrates use them. Some examples of lipids fats which are found in animals typically. There are oils that typically come from different plants. There is a difference between saturated, unsaturated, and Trans fatty acids.
The saturated have no double bonds between the carbon atoms.
The unsaturated have the double bonds where ever there is hydrogen’s are less 2 per carbon.
Last but least the Trans fatty acids are vegetable oils that have been particularly hydrogenated to seem solid. All the double bonds are saturated.

Steroids

These are lipids that have entirely different structure from those of fats. They have 4 fused carbon rings.

2.6 proteins

Proteins are the primary function and structure of cells.

· Support
· Enzymes
· Transport
· Defense
· Hormones
· Motion

Shape of the proteins

Extreme heat will cause them to undergo denaturation.

Levels of protein

· The first level is the primary structure.
· The second is the secondary structure
· The third is the tertiary structure and this is the final 3-D shape.
· The four is the quaternary structure.

2.7 Nucleic Acids

This is the DNA and RNA. They were demeaned this because they were detected in the nucleus of the cells.

DNA

DNA contains sugar and also contains the bases of adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine. This also has a double stranded look

RNA
RNA contains a different type of sugar then the DNA and has different bases and is not a helix.

These are both used to store use the information. Components are nucleotides.

Chapter 3 Cell structure and function

3.1 What is a cell?

The cell theory

This is the basic unit of life. Every living thing in the world is made up of cells. And cells can only be recreated by other existing cells.

The Cell size

Depending on the cell you are looking at it could be visible by the naked eye but human cells are not. The larger the size of the cell the more nutrients need to feed it so it will thrive.

Microscopy and cell structure

Micrographics are photos that are taken by the compound light microscope. This is also the type of microscope that we used in out unit one lab. (Please see the lab below)

~ Microscope Lab~

The first microscope first came about into the world in 1595 thanks to one of the most brilliant men, Zacharies Janssen. Since he was so young at the time some say his father probably built the first one but Zach eventually took over the production. Two other men made great changes to the microscope and helping it are what it is today. The first was Hooke he vastly improved the image that is giving off from the microscope. Second was Van Leeuwenhoek he built the one lenses microscope. He was famous for more then just the microscope he also discovered the bacteria and helped prove the theory of blood circulation.

. There are four main microscopes in the world are:
· The Compound Light Microscope
· Dissection
· Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
· Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

These microscopes range in the quality to the price.

The most common being the compound light microscope and it also the cheapest one on the market. This offers a 2-D image and is light laminated.

Dissection microscope is also lit by a light but reveals a 3-D picture. This however has low magnification.

The SEM model is one of the more pricy ones but it does pay off. This offers a 3-D black and white high resolution and high magnification picture.

The most expensive is the TEM but gives off a 2-D high magnification and high resolution picture.

These are the parts of the Microscope:
Aperture diaphragm
This is the hole in the stage that houses the slide. This also lets the light shine through to be able to view the slide. This is one of the most critical pieces of the microscope!!!
Body Tube
This part supports the eyepiece and objectives. It is critical that the tube be constructed so that this optics shares a common axis
Coarse Adjustment Knob
This moves either the body tube, or the stage up or down in a quick manner. A good coarse focus control will provide smooth, back lash free movement. This is used for the initial focusing magnification. You would use this before the fine focus. The coarse adjustment knob shouldn’t be moved unless it is set on the smallest magnification. It could crack or damage the specimen.
Eyepiece
The eye piece is self explanatory but I will amuse you anyways. The eye piece is how you view the slide!
Fine focus knob
This control allows for precise focusing of the specimen. This is best done when looking the microscope at the slide.
Base
It rests on the bench top and supports the stage and body of the microscope and in many cases also holds the lamp.
Arm
The arm is attached to the foot and supports the body tube.
Internal lamp
The lamp is used to light the objects in the slide for better viewing of the different parts. With out this you could not see the slides very well or at all.
Nosepiece
This accommodates at least 4 different magnification objectives. On the microscope that we are using today will have 4x,10x,40x, and 100x. This can change the magnification of the slide, letting you see more or less.
Objective
The objective is the actual microscope. This will let you examine objects to at least 400x the size. With out this the microscope would be pointless! These can be changed safely by looking at the microscope. If done when looking in the microscope it could damage the slide if the objective hits it.
Stage clips
These are the basic stage slide holders. Supplied in pairs, they are adequate for general slide manipulation up to a maximum of 400x. They hold the slides in place. This can affect image immensely if they were not present your slide may not stay still where you place it.
Stage
This is the platform that supports the specimen (which are typically mounted on glass slides). To do this job properly it must be perfectly perpendicular to the optical axis, dead flat and of adequate size. This can be adjusted and viewed by looking at the Microscope.

The founding fathers of the microscope changed the world for ever we have accomplished so much that we never thought we would. Thanks to the vast improvements to the microscopes over the years we have been able to find out more about diseases and have been able to impregnate woman who never thought they would be able to have kids. We have giving children hope to live when they thought death is all that seeks them. We have fought AIDS, Cancer, and blood born diseases.

3.2 How are cells organized?

Evolutionary History of the animal cell

Prokaryotic cell lack a nucleus and has a membrane enclosed structure where the DNA is found. It is mainly represented by the bacteria and archaea. DNA is loose in the cytoplasm. The small ribosomes are assembled from the DNA information.

Eukaryotic cells in humans have a nucleus and have larger ribosomes. The eukaryotic cells do not have a membrane that surrounds but does carry cellular respiration.

3.3 The Plasma Membrane and how substances cross it

1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Facilitated Transport
4. Acetic Transport
5. Endocytosis and exocytosis
The plasma membrane is selectively permeable and only lets certain molecules to enter and exit. Diffusion also takes place in the membrane; diffusion is the random of molecules from a higher concentration to lower concentration. Then osmosis takes place during osmosis it is the diffusion of water molecules. Facilitated transport is the transport of molecules across the plasma membrane from higher concentration to concentration VIA a protein carrier. Acetic transport is the movement molecule from to higher using ATP as energy requires a protein carrier. Then exocytose transports molecules outside the cell VIA fusion of a versatile with the plasma membrane.

3.4 The nucleus and the production of proteins

The nucleus

The nucleus is the middle and most promenade structure in the cell. The nucleus is trapped within the nucleolus envelope.

Ribosomes

The ribosomes are made of organelles of protein and RNA. There are found in the endo plasma and free float in the cell.

The endo membrane system

The endomembrane system contains a nuclear envelope, vesicles, Golgi Lysosome, and endo plasmic reticulum.

3.5 The cytoskeleton and cell movement

Cilia and Flagella

They are both made of microtubules and both used in movement. One of the big differences is that cilia are about 20x the size of the flagella.

3.6 Mitochondria and cellular Metabolism

in the mitochondria there is am important function happening: Cellular Respiration. Cellular respiration produces ATP in a cell. ATP gives us the quick burst of energy that we need.

Chapter 4 Organization and regulation of body systems

There are 4 different types of tissue in the body:

4.1 Types of tissues

a tissue is composed of specialized cells of the same type that perform a common function in the body. The 4 types of tissues are:
1. Connective
2. Muscular
3. Nervous
4. Epithelial

4.2 connective tissue connects and supports

The connective tissue is responsible supporting and binding the body together. The three main types of tissues that make connective tissue up are:
1. Fibrous
2. supportive
3. fluid

These all play a special role in the body such as supporting the blood vessels, nerves, and the cell population.

4.3 Muscular tissue moves the body

The muscle is what allows a runner to run and a gymnast to do the rings. This is how we move. There are also three types of tissues that make it up:
1. Skeletal
2. Smooth
3. Cardiac
Muscular tissue makes up some of the most vital organs in the body such as your heart.

4.4 nervous tissues communicates

The nervous tissues are what communicate when something hurts or feels good. This is where the sensory impute lies. However this is a large system but is only made up of two major cells
1. neurons – carries messages
2. neuralgia – supports the neurons

4.5 epithelial tissues protects

This can include the lining of the lungs to lining of the nose

4.6 cell junctions

There are three different types of cell junctures:
1. Tight
2. adhesion
3. Gap

The tight junctures are the zipper like fasting between the cells. The adhesion junctions are what let the cells stretch and bend. The gap junctions allow the smaller molecules and signals to pass between the cells.

4.7 Integument system

This includes the organ systems and the skin. The skin is the most conspicuous system because it cover the outside of the body and is about 15% the weight of an adult. There are different regions of the skin
1. The epidermis is the very top layer of the skin. This is also where skin cancer can be seen.
2. The Dermis is the region of the dense fibrous connective tissue below the epidermis.
3. then the subcutaneous layer this not considered part of the skin but is the common site for injections.
The skin also contains the sweat glands, the hair follicles, oil glands, and the acne.

4.8 organ systems

Integumentary system
Protects the body
Receives sensory input
Helps control temperature
Synthesis vitamin D

2. Cardiovascular system
a. transports blood, nutrients, gases, and wastes.
b. defends against disease
c. helps control temperature, fluid, and pH balance
3. Lymphatic and immune system
a. Helps control fluid and balance
b. Absorbs fat
c. Defends against infectious disease
4. Digestive system
a. ingests food
b. Digests food
c. absorbs nutrients
d. eliminates waste
5. Respiratory system
a. maintains breathing
b. exchanges gases at lungs and tissues
c. helps control pH balance
6. Urinary system
a. excretes metabolic wastes
b. helps control fluid balance
c. helps control pH balance
7. Skeletal System
a. supports the body
b. protects the bodies parts
c. helps move the body
d. stores minerals
e. produces blood cells
8. Muscular system
a. maintains posture
b. moves body and internal organs
c. produces heat
9. Nervous system
a. receives sensory impute
b. integrates and stores input
c. initiates motor output
d. helps coordinate organ systems
10. Endocrine system
a. produces hormones
b. helps coordinate organ systems
c. responds to stress
d. helps regulate fluid and pH balance
e. Helps regulate metabolism
11. Reproductive system
a. produces gametes
b. transports gametes
c. produces sex hormones
d. nurtures and gives birth to offspring in females

4.9 homeostasis

is the relative constancy of the internal environment and all the organs help contribute to this.

These are the website where I got some of the pictures that helped me understand some of the material.

www.corrosionsource.com/.../periodic_table.gif
whyfiles.org/034clone/images/dna_molecule.gif
www.blackwellpublishing.com/.../Fig1-9.jpg
www.hometrainingtools.com/misc/compound%20par...
http://scienceblogs.com/clock/2006/11/cell_structure.php